Virtues for Principals to Enact Ethical Leadership: An Education Policy Perspective

Edwin Darrell De Klerk, Sipiwe Mudadigwa

Abstract


Ethical leadership is a core characteristic of a transformative authentic way of how principals should lead schools in contemporary times. However, an absence of policy insights into ethical leadership contributes to pedestrian knowledge about the discourse. As such, the purpose of this paper was to present education policy perspectives regarding policy virtues that can support principals in transforming the way they think about and enact ethical leadership. Significantly, education policy contains a collection of actions and options that, when deciphered, can give direction on how principals’ ability to enact ethical leadership can be strengthened. This qualitative conceptual study applied the ethical leadership theory and policy text analysis as a research method to analyse texts in the Policy on the South African Standards for Principals and South African Schools Act to provide insights into how principals can become stronger ethical leaders. The findings revealed that practical wisdom, parrhesia, homo virtus, and self-critique can be considered relevant policy virtues that can guide principals in becoming the bearers of ethical leadership in schools. As such, this paper recommends that an application of the proposed virtues should be seriously considered by principals to assist them in adjusting their current perspectives toward maximizing their ethical leadership aptitudes. 

https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.24.4.35


Keywords


education policy, ethical leadership, principals, schools, virtues

Full Text:

PDF

References


Alhaidan, H. (2024). Ethical leadership in action: Understanding the mechanism of organizational justice and leaders’ moral identity. Human Systems Management, 0(0), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2017.12.002

Arendt, H. (1998). The human condition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. https://pensarelespaciopublico.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/arendt-hanna-the-human-condition.pdf

Arar, K. (2016). Unethical decision-making of school principals and vice-principals in the Arab education system in Israel: The interplay between culture and ethnicity. In A. Normore & J. Brooks (eds.), The dark side of leadership: Identifying and overcoming unethical practice in organizations (pp. 73–94). England, Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-366020160000026005

Aristotle. (2014). Nicomachean ethics. Translated by Roger Crisp. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam032/99036947.pdf

Arjoon, S. (2000). Virtue theory as a dynamic theory of business. Journal of Business Ethics, 28(2), 159–178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1006339112331

Ball, S. J., Maguire, M., Braun, A., & Hoskins, K. (2011). Policy actors: Doing policy work in schools. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 32(4), 625–639. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2011.601565

Batters, S. M. (2011). Care of the self and the will to freedom: Michel Foucault, critique and ethics. https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1241&context=srhonorsprog

Bazerman, M. H. (2020, September – October). A new model for ethical leadership [Blog post]. https://hbr.org/2020/09/a-new-model-for-ethical-leadership

Belludi, N. (2023). The Enron scandal: A lesson on motivated blindness. https://www.rightattitudes.com/2023/07/19/motivated-blindness/

Bromley, M. (2020, November 11). Covid-19: Why we need ethical leadership more than ever – and what it looks like [Blog post]. https://www.headteacher-update.com/content/best-practice/covid-19-why-we-need-ethical-leadership-more-than-ever-and-what-it-looks-like/

Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117–134. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.002

Burch, K. (2009). Parrhesia as a principle of democratic pedagogy. Philosophical Studies in Education, 40, 71–82. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ864311.pdf

Burnyeat, M. F. (1980). Aristotle on learning to be good. In A. O. Rorty (Ed.), Essays on Aristotle’s Ethics (pp. 69–92). Berkeley. http://ereserve.library.utah.edu/Annual/PHIL/5150/Hutton/aristotle.pdf

Bush, T. (2018). Preparation and induction for school principals: Global perspectives. Management in Education, 32(2), 66–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892020618761805

Byun, G., Karau, S. J., Dai, Y., & Lee, S. (2018). A three-level examination of the cascading effects of ethical leadership on employee outcomes: A moderated mediation analysis. Journal of Business Research, 88, 44–53. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.03.004

Caldwell, C., Hayes, L. A. (2016). Self-efficacy and self-awareness: Moral insights to increased leader effectiveness. Journal of Management Development, 35(9), 1163–1173. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-01-2016-0011

Cardno, C. (2018). Policy document analysis: A practical educational leadership tool and a qualitative research method. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice, 24(4), 623–640. https://doi.org/10.14527/kuey.2018.016

Cavin, I. J., Raditio, K. H., Santosa, W., & Kristiyanto, N. (2024). Parrhesia: The development of the meaning and its influence on the Christian evangelization. Proceedings of the International Conference on Theology, Religion, Culture, and Humanities, 1(1), 116–130. https://doi.org/10.24071/tic.v1i1.8580

Châteauvert-Gagnon, B. (2022). ‘How dare she?!’: Parrhesiastic resistance and the logics of protection of/in international security. Security Dialogue, 53(4), 281–301. https://doi.org/0.1177/09670106221090830

Chibaya, S. (2024). Navigating the ethical quagmire: an in-depth analysis of ethical leadership practices amidst turbulence and multiple deprivation in four Zimbabwean schools. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 2024, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2024.2313007

Dawson, D. (2015). Two forms of virtue ethics: two sets of virtuous action in the fire service dispute? Journal of Business Ethics, 128, 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2121-z

De Klerk, E. D. (2014). Teacher autonomy and professionalism: A policy archaeology perspective [Doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch University]. https://scholar.sun.ac.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/4f72fc88-e851-4828-918d-b5fb1a0f6b5f/content

Derrida, J. (1995). A certain madness must watch over thinking. Educational Theory, 45(3), 273–291. https://madihadebbabi1984.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/derrida-j-a-certain-madness-must-watch-over-thinking-1995-45-educational-theory-273.pdf

Dimitriou, C. K., & Ducette, J. P. (2018). An analysis of the key determinants of hotel employees’ ethical behavior. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 34, 66–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2017

Dimmock, M., & Fischer, A. (2017). Ethics for A-level. Cambridge, UK, Open Book Publishers. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/4e47582f-1f98-4501-9012-a62b16f6e251/638898.pdf

Enwereuzor, I. K., Onyishi, I. E., Albi-Oparaocha, F. C., & Amaeshi, K. (2020). Perceived leader integrity as a mediator between ethical leadership and ethical climate in a teaching context. BMC Psychology, 8(52), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-00420-6

Fan, G., & Popkewitz, T. S. (2020). Handbook of education policy studies. Springer Nature. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/39545/2020_Book_HandbookOfEducationPolicyStudi.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Farrell, C., & Coburn, C. (2016, April 8). What is the conceptual use of research, and why is it important? [Blog post]. https://wtgrantfoundation.org/conceptual-use-research-important.

Foucault, M. (1997). The ethics of the concern of the self as a practice of freedom. In P. Rabinow (ed.), The essential works of Michel Foucault: Ethics (pp. 281–301). New York: The New Press.

Foucault, M. (2010). The government of self and others: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1982–1983. New York: Picador/Palgrave Macmillan.

Foucault, M. (2011). The courage of truth: The government of self and others. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Friedland, J., & Cole, B. M. (2019). From homo-economicus to homo-virtus: A system-theoretic model for raising Mmral self-awareness. Journal of Business Ethics, 155, 191–205. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s10551-017-3494-6

Gentry, L., & Fleshman, J. W. (2020). Leadership and ethics: Virtue ethics as a model for leadership development. Clinics in Colon and Rectal Surgery, 33(4), 217–220. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7329376/pdf/10-1055-s-0040-1709437.pdf

Gilson, L. L., & Goldberg, C. B. (2015). Editors’ comment: So, what is a conceptual paper? Group & Organization Management, 40(2), 127–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601115576425

Gökçe, A. T. (2021). Core values in education from the perspective of future educators. SAGE Open, II(2), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211014485

Göçen, A. (2021). Ethical leadership in educational organizations: A cross-cultural study. Turkish Journal of Education, 10(1), 37–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.19128/turje.811919

Greany, T. (2024). Moral purpose in performative times: Do school leaders’ values

matter? British Journal of Educational Studies, 72(5), 587–606.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2024.2374074

Guo, K. (2022). The relationship between ethical leadership and employee job satisfaction: the mediating role of media richness and perceived organizational transparency. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.885515

Gyódi, K., Nawaro, L., Pali?ski, M., & Wilamowski, M. (2023). Informing policy with text mining: Technological change and social challenges, Quality & Quantity, 57, 933–954. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-022-01378-w

Hampson, M. S. (2017). Enacting virtue. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10040101/1/Enacting%20Virtue%20.pdf

Heifetz, R. A. (1994). Leadership without easy answers, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Henebery, B. (2024, October 29). How principals can handle ethical dilemmas. The educator online. https://www.theeducatoronline.com/k12/news/how-principals-can-handle-ethical-dilemmas/285922

Hirschheim, R. (2008). Some guidelines for the critical reviewing of conceptual papers, Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 9(8), 432–441. https://aisel.aisnet.org/jais/vol9/iss8/21

Hlongwane, C. B. (2021). Understanding principals’ lived experiences of ethical dilemmas on issues relating to educators’ codes of professional ethics in Umgungundlovu district. [M.Ed.-dissertation, University of Kwazulu-Natal]. https://researchspace.ukzn.ac.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/14a5f046-ed1b-4429-837c-53bdc106a02f/content

Iroegbu, P. (2005). Beginning, purpose and end of life. In P. Iroegbu & A. Echekwube (Eds.), Kpim of morality ethics (pp. 440–445). Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books.

Jakubik, M. (2020). How can practical wisdom manifest itself in five f undamental management and leadership practices? Vilakshan - XIMB Journal of Management, 181), 3–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/XJM-08-2020-0078

Jeste, D. V., Lee, E. E., Cassidy, C., Caspari, R., Gagneux, P., Glorioso, D., Miller, B. L., Semendeferi, K., Vogler, C., Nusbaum, H., & Blazer, D. (2019). The new science of practical wisdom. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 62(2), 216–236. https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2019.0011

Kannan, D., & Levitt, H. M. (2013). A review of client self-criticism in psychotherapy. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 23(2), 166–178. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-19888-001

Kivunja, C., & Kuyini, A. B. (2017). Understanding and applying research paradigms in educational contexts, International Journal of Higher Education, 6(5), 26–41. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v6n5p26

Klag, M., & Langley, A. (2013). Approaching the conceptual leap in qualitative research,

International Journal of Management Reviews, 15(2), 149–166. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2012.00349.x

Krettenauer, T., & Stichter, M. (2023). Moral identity and the acquisition of virtue: A self-regulation view, Review of General Psychology, 27(4), 396–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/10892680231170393

Lingard, B. (1996). Educational policy making in a postmodern state. On Stephen J. Ball's education reform: A critical and post-structural approach. Australian Educational Researcher, 23(1), 65–91. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF03219613.pdf

Mabvurira, V. (2020). Hunhu/Ubuntu philosophy as a guide for ethical decision making in social work. African Journal of Social Work, 10(1), 73-77. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajsw/article/view/194109

Maimela, H. (2023). Exploring the role of ethical school leadership in promoting accountability and trust: A case study of two township schools in Johannesburg Central District [M.Ed. dissertation, Wits University]. https://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/078c3d0d-a8c7-4a2a-8f77-a98ba22a2b11/content

Massingham, P. (2019). An Aristotelian interpretation of practical wisdom: the case of retirees. Palgrave Communication, 2019(5), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0331-9

Maxwell, L. (2019). The politics and gender of truth-telling in Foucault’s lectures on parrhesia, Contemporary Political Theory, 18(1), 22–42. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41296-018-0224-5

McDermott, T. (Ed.). (1989). Summa theologiae. A concise translation. Allen Texas: Christian Classics.

Metz, T. (2011). Ubuntu as a moral theory and human rights in South Africa. African Human Rights Law Journal, 11(2), 532–559. https://www.ahrlj.up.ac.za/images/ahrlj/2011/ahrlj_vol11_no2_2011_thadeus_metz.pdf

Metz, T. (2014). The virtues of African ethics. In S. van Hooft, N. Athanassoulis, J. Kawall, J. Oakley & L. van Zyl (Eds.), The handbook of virtue ethics (pp. 276–284). Durham: Acumen Publishing.

Michalski, C. A., Diemert, L. M., Helliwell, J. F., Goel, V., & Rosella, L. C. (2020). Relationship between sense of community belonging and self-rated health across life stages, Population Health, 12(6), 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100676

Mlambo, F., & Khumalo, S. S. (2022). An examination of the promotion of the ethic of professional praxis of secondary school principals: A South African perspective. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 2022, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2022.2093402

Mohajan, H. (2018). Qualitative research methodology in social sciences and related subjects. Journal of Economic Development, Environment and People, 7(1), 23–48. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/85654/

Nassaji, H. (2020). Good qualitative research. Language Teaching Research, 24(4), 427–431. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820941288

Nichol, B., Wilson, R., Rodrigues, A., & Haighton, C. (2023). Exploring the effects of volunteering on the social, mental, and physical health and well-being of volunteers: An umbrella review. Voluntas, 35, 97–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-023-00573-z

Nicolaides, A., & Dludla, N. (2023). Virtue ethics and ubuntu in leadership towards the promotion of ethical organisational operations. Athens Journal of Business & Economics, 9(3), 285–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.30958/ajbe.9-3-3

Nkondo, G. M. (2007). Ubuntu as a public policy in South Africa. International Journal of African Renaissance Studies, 2(1), 88–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/18186870701384202

Northouse, P. G. (2013). Leadership: Theory and practice (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Olssen, M., Codd, J., & O’Neill, A. (2004). Education policy: Globalization, ctizenship and democracy. London: Sage Publications.

Pansiri, N. O., Ugwu, C. I., & Maundeni, W. B. (2021). The theoretical analysis of ethical leadership lapses: A disturbing concern about school leadership in Botswana. Educational Research and Reviews, 16(8), 372–381. https://doi.org/0.5897/ERR2021.4187

Papaloi, E., Balasi, A., & Iordanidis, G. (2023). Ethical leadership and ethical climate at educational organizations in Europe: Depicting the “Value” of values. European Journal of Education, 6(2), 119–137. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1414664.pdf

Parada-Contzen, M., & Parada-Daza, J. R. (2023). On the weighting of homo economicus and homo virtus in human behaviour, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02142-7

Pervin, N., & Mokhtar, M. (2022). The interpretivist research paradigm: A subjective notion of a social context. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 11(2), 420–428. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v11-i2/12938

Posselt, G. (2021). Self-Care and truth-telling: Rethinking care with Foucault. Le Foucaldien, 7(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.16995/lefou.107

Potterton, M. (2014, August 23). Responsibility is a matter of principals. Mail&Guardian. https://mg.co.za/article/2014-08-23-responsibility-is-a-matter-of-principals/

Price, M. (2024). Positioning, principles, and parrhesia: From ranting to activism. International Review of Qualitative Research, 00(0), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940844720968194

Prinsloo, S. (2016). The dual role of the principal as employee of the Department of Education and ex-officio member of the governing body, South African Journal of Education, 36(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v36n2a498

Quynh, T. N. T., Alang, T., & Le, T. D. (2025). Examining the relationships between ethical leadership and organisational citizenship behaviours in a transitional country: the mediation of public service motivation. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Administration, 2025, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/23276665.2025.2453862

Rabie, M. O., & Abdul Malek, M. (2020). Ethical leadership and employee ethical behavior: A moderated mediation mechanism. SEISENSE Journal of Management, 3(2), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.33215/sjom.v3i2.321

Republic of South Africa (RSA). (1996). South African Schools Act. Pretoria: Government Printer. https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/act84of1996.pdf

Republic of South Africa (RSA). (2015). The South African Standards for Principals. Pretoria: Government Printer. https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201603/39827gon323.pdf

Roberts, C. (2025, February 27). Wisdom in school leadership: Introducing the framework for ethical leadership in education. news24. https://my.chartered.college/impact_article/wisdom-in-school-leadership-introducing-the-framework-for-ethical-leadership-in-education/

Ross, S. (2023). What is the human capital theory and how is it used? https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/032715/what-human-capital-and-how-it-used.asp

Shakeel, F, Kruyen, P. M., & Van Thiel, S. (2019). Ethical leadership as process: A conceptual proposition. Public Integrity, 21(6), 613–624. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2019.1606544

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2022). Aristotle’s ethics. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/

Tingle, E., Corrales, A., & Peters, M. L. (2019). Leadership development programs: Investing in school principals. Educational Studies, 45(1), 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2017.1382332

Tirri, K., & Kuusisto, E. (2022). Building moral communities in schools. In K. Tirri & E. Kuusisto (eds.), Teachers’ professional ethics: Theoretical frameworks and empirical research from Finland (pp. 79–82). Brill.

Tobias, S. (2021). Critique as virtue: Buddhism, Foucault, and the ethics of critique. Comparative and Continental Philosophy, 13(3), 258–274. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17570638.2021.2008846

Türegün, N. (2017). Ethical awareness, ethical decision making, and transparency: A study on Turkish CPAs in Istanbul. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/61095

Vargo, S. L., & Koskela-Huotari, K. (2020). Advancing conceptual-only articles in marketing. Academy of Marketing Science, 2020, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13162-020-00173-w

Vigani, D. (2024). habituation into virtue and the alleged paradox of moral education. Social Theory and Practice, 50(1), 157–178. https://philarchive.org/rec/VIGHIV-2

Vikaraman, S. S., Mansor, A. N., Nor, M. Y., Alias, B. S., & Gurusamy, V. (2021). Ethical leadership practices and trust among public school leaders in Malaysia. Asian Journal of University Education (AJUE), 17(1), 174–191. https://doi.org/10.24191/ajue.v17i3.14509

Wilson, S. (2022). Despite our differences, can we find a common good? https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/leadership-the-common-good/202203/despite-our-differences-can-we-find-common-good

Wirba, A. V. (2023). Ethical Leadership in organisation. Advance, 2023, 1–17. https://d197for5662m48.cloudfront.net/documents/publicationstatus/185250/preprint_pdf/b74cd270d4f176bc128f423e5180c6f4.pdf

Woodcock, S. (2021). Thinking the right way (at the right time) about virtues and skills. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 24(2), 577–586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10677-020-10142-8

Wright, J. C., Warren, M. T., & Snow, N. E. (2021). Understanding virtue: Theory and measurement. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Zhu, W., Zheng, X., He, H., Wang, G., & Zhang, X. (2019). Ethical leadership with both “moral person” and “moral manager” aspects: Scale development and cross-cultural validation, Journal of Business Ethics, 158(2), 547–565. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s10551-017-3740-y


Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.


e-ISSN: 1694-2116

p-ISSN: 1694-2493